Appendix 6.10 Core ocean statistics for key ecosystem types


Table 42. Coral Reef ecosystem core statistics

 

Ecosystem Type: Coral Reefs

Category

Statistic

Ocean Assets

 

Condition

Overall condition statistics

Biodiversity

Coral coverage (satellite data)

 

Hermatypic coral abundance (in-situ)

 

Hermatypic coral diversity (in-situ)

Ecosystem Fitness

Production: Respiration Ratio

 

Net Accretion Rate

 

Total Alkalinity/DIC Slope

 

Reef water flow velocity

Biogeochemical Cycling

Nitrate concentration

 

Total Alkalinity

 

Offshore: Inshore DIC ratio

 

Aragonite Saturation State

 

Dissolved Oxygen

 

pH (total scale)

Physiochemical Quality

Temperature

 

Mean Sea Level

 

Salinity

Greenhouse Gas Retention

Dissolved Inorganic Nutrient Concentration

 

Carbon Dioxide Flux

 

Coral coverage (satellite data)

 

Sediment: Hard Coral Ratio

Stock

Overall stock statistics

Ecosystem Extent

Coral coverage (satellite data)

Total reef area (satellite data)

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Stocks of Subsistence Fish

(Vertebrates)

Stocks of Recreational Fish

 

Stocks of Commercial Fish

 

Stocks of Ornamental Aquarium Fish

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Stocks of  Echinoderms

(Invertebrates, Algae, Plants)

Stocks of Gastropods

 

Stocks of Ornamental Aquarium Coral for Export

 

Stocks of Bivalves

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Pelagic Fish Reared

 (Vertebrates)

Gross Reef Fish Reared

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Coral Cultured

(Invertebrates)

Gross Algae Grown

Stock of Abiotic Resources

Calcium Available for Harvest

 

Minerals/Oils Available for Extraction

Ocean Services

 

Regulating

Conditions affecting flow of service

Greenhouse Gas Sequestration

Coastal geomorphology

 

Sediment deposition rate

 

Light availability

 

Coral Cover

Coastal Protection

Coral Species

 

Reef length/distance

 

Water depth

 

Mean Wave Height

 

Storm Frequency

Erosion Control

Sea Level Rise Rate

 

Terrestrial Sediment Deposition Rate

 

Reef slope to lagoon sediment deposition rate

Water Purification

Sediment Organic Carbon:Nitrogen Ratio

 

Benthic coral:algae cover ratio

Nutrient Cycling

Benthic algae cover

 

Sediment cover

 

Ratio of Nitrate:Ammonium

Waste Remediation

Sediment Organic Carbon Content

 

Sediment Organic Nitrogen Content

 

Plastic Pollutant Load

 

Terrestrial Runoff Rate

Pollutant Remediation

Fertilizer Concentrations

 

POC/PON Concentrations

 

Ciguatera Presence

Provisioning

Conditions affecting flow of services/economic values

Maintenance of Fisheries

Fish catch and value

 

Coral Cover

Cultivated Resources Extracted

Value of Cultivated Vertebrates

 

Value of Cultivated Invertebrates

Raw Materials Extracted

Value of Coral Sand Extracted

 

Value of Guano Extracted

Cultural

Service levels and values

Tourism/Recreation

Swimmable Area (Lagoon Size)

 

Underwater Tourism

 

Nautical Tourism

 

Surfing/Recreational Tourism

Education/Research

Net Expense on Research

 

Net Expense on Education

Religious/Spiritual/Indigenous

Cultural Heritage Area

Ocean Governance

Activities, status, expenditures and value statistics

Regulation

License Fees/Taxes

 

Taxes on Cultivated Resources

 

Taxes on Natural Resources

Enforcement

Permit Income

 

Penalties/Fines

Restoration/Conservation

Area Conserved (no take)

 

Area Conserved (recreational take only)

 

Biomass Restocked (vertebrates)

 

Biomass Restocked (invertebrates)

Mitigation

Length of Engineered Coastal Barriers

 

Area Geoengineered

Gross value added by sector

Gross value added of all Ocean Services by sector

Expenditure

Expenditures on environmental protection and maintenance

Table 43. Mangrove ecosystem core statistics

 

Ecosystem Type: Mangroves

Category

Statistic

Ocean Assets

 

Condition

Overall condition statistics

Biodiversity

Enhanced Vegetation Index (MODIS Imaging)

 

Percent Tree Cover (MODIS Imaging)

 

Phytoplankton Abundance/Diversity

Ecosystem Fitness

Percent Tree Cover

 

Leaf Area Index

 

Chlorophyll Absorption (Hyperspectral Imaging)

 

Soil Carbon

Biogeochemical Cycling

Soil Nitrogen

 

Turbidity

 

Sediment Accumulation:Sea Level Rise

 

Particulate/Dissolved Organic C:N

 

Dissolved Oxygen

 

Soil and Water pH

Physiochemical Quality

Mean Sea Level

 

Tidal Regime

 

Salinity

Greenhouse Gas Retention

Methane Flux

 

Carbon Dioxide Flux

 

Sedimentation Rate (Mud Content)

 

Canopy Area Cover (Landsat Images)

Stock

Overall stock statistics

Ecosystem Extent

Percent Tree Cover (MODIS Imaging)

Total Mangrove Area (satellite imaging)

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Stocks of planktivorous fish

(Vertebrates)

Stocks of piscivorous fish

 

Bird abundance/diversity

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Gross Mangrove Removal

(Invertebrates)

Macrobenthic Community (Sponges, polychaetes)

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Piscivorous Fish Grown

 (Vertebrates)

Gross Planktivorous Fish Grown

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Oyster Aquaculture

(Invertebrates)

Shrimp Aquaculture

Stock of Abiotic Resources

Charcoal Available for Harvest

 

Fuelwood Available for Harvest

Ocean Services (Flows to the Economy)

 

Regulating

Conditions affecting flow of service

Greenhouse Gas Sequestration

Coastal geomorphology

 

Sediment deposition rate

 

Vegetation Type/Density

Coastal Protection

Sediment Elevation Rate

 

Mangrove Mean Age

 

Mean Sea Level

 

Tidal Height

 

Geomorphic Settings

Erosion Control

Distance to Human Settlement

 

Sea level rise

 

Vegetation Type/Density

Water Purification

Mangrove Cover/Distance

 

Sediment Quality

Nutrient Cycling

Nitrification Rate

 

Biological Oxygen Demand

 

Sulfate Reduction Rate

Waste Remediation

Mangrove quality and area

 

Mangrove Root Length (aerial exposure)

 

Adjacent Farming Development

 

Shrimp Pond Development

Pollutant Remediation

Fertilizer Concentrations

 

Dissolved Nutrient Concentrations

 

Trace Metal Concentrations

Provisioning

Conditions affecting flow of service/economic values

Maintenance of Fisheries

Fish Catch and value

 

Time Spent Fishing

 

Shrimp/Shrimp Fry Caught

Cultivated Resources Extracted

Value of Cultivated Vertebrates

 

Value of Cultivated Invertebrates

Raw Materials Extracted

Fuelwood Harvested and Value

 

Charcoal Harvested and Value

Cultural

Service levels and values

Tourism/Recreation

Mangrove Area/Lagoon Size

 

Distance to Human Settlement

 

Tourism Generated Income

 

Recreation Generated Income

Education/Research

Net Expense on Research

 

Net Expense on Education

 

Education Level

Religious/Spiritual/Indigenous

Cultural Heritage Area

Ocean Governance

Activities, status, expenditures and value statistics

Regulation

License Fees/Taxes

 

Taxes on Cultivated Resources

 

Taxes on Natural Resources

Enforcement

Permit Income

 

Penalties/Fines

Restoration/Conservation

Area Conserved (no take)

 

Distance to Industry/Ports

 

Biomass Restocked

 

Post-restoration care

Mitigation

Length of Engineered Coastal Barriers

 

Area Geoengineered

Gross value added by sector

Gross value added of all Ocean Services by sector

Expenditure

Expenditures on environmental protection and maintenance

Table 44. Kelp Forest ecosystem core statistics

 

Ecosystem Type: Kelp Forest

Category

Statistic

Ocean Assets

 

Condition

Overall condition statistics

Biodiversity

Macroalgae Species Richness

 

Kelp Canopy Biomass (in-situ)

 

Benthic Macroinvertebrate Diversity

Ecosystem Fitness

Availability of Drift Algae

 

Turf Algae Abundance

 

Urchin Grazing Intensity

 

Ratio of Invasive: Natural kelp species

 

Juvenile Kelp Recruitment Rate

Biogeochemical Cycling

Nitrate Concentration

 

Ammonium Concentration

 

Kelp Growth Rate

 

Dissolved Oxygen Concentration

 

C13 Stable Isotopes

 

N15 Stable Isotopes

Physiochemical Quality

Temperature

 

Light availability

 

Salinity

Greenhouse Gas Retention

Light availability

 

Carbon Storage

 

Kelp Forest Biomass

Stock

Overall stock statistics

Ecosystem Extent

Kelp Canopy Cover (in-situ)

 

Total Kelp Forest Area (Satellite)

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Fish stocks

(Vertebrates)

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Urchin abundance

(Invertebrates)

Abalone abundance

 

Lobster abundance

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Piscivorous Fish Grown

 (Vertebrates)

Gross Planktivorous Fish Grown

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Shellfish grown

(Invertebrates)

Gross Macroalgae Available for Harvested

Stock of Abiotic Resources

Alginate Available for Extraction

Ocean Services (Flows to the Economy)

 

Regulating

Conditions affecting flow of service

Greenhouse Gas Sequestration

Light Availability

 

Kelp Biomass

 

Kelp Canopy Cover

Coastal Protection

Coastal geomorphology

 

Kelp Canopy Density

 

Wave fetch

 

Abundance of Urchins (and removed)

 

Storm Frequency

Erosion Control

Localized Hydrodynamics

 

Distance to Metropolitan Area

 

Kelp Canopy Cover

Water Purification

Kelp/Macroalgae Abundance

 

Light Availability

Nutrient Cycling

Kelp Growth Rate

 

Standing Stock of Carbon

 

Light availability

Waste Remediation

Ratio of Turf:Macroalgae

 

Kelp Canopy Cover

Pollutant Remediation

Fertilizer Concentrations

 

Fish Farm Runoff

Provisioning

Conditions affecting flow of service/economic values

Maintenance of Fisheries

Fish Catch and Value

 

Catch Per Unit Effort

 

Kelp Cover

Cultivated Resources Extracted

Value of Cultivated Vertebrates

 

Value of Cultivated Macroalgae

Raw Materials Extracted

Alginate Extracted

Cultural

Service levels and values

Tourism/Recreation

Kelp Persistence

 

Scuba Diving Frequency

 

Spatial coverage of Marine Protected Area

 

Recreational Fisheries

Education/Research

Net Expense on Research

 

Net Expense on Education

Religious/Spiritual/Indigenous

Cultural Heritage Area

Ocean Governance

Activities, status, expenditures and value statistics

Regulation

License Fees/Taxes

 

Taxes on Cultivated Resources

 

Taxes on Natural Resources

Enforcement

Permit Income

 

Penalties/Fines

Restoration/Conservation

Transplant costs

 

Invasive Species Abundance

 

Fish Biomass

 

Number/Size of Marine Protected Areas

Mitigation

Area/Abundance of Urchins Removed

 

Area Restored with Kelp

Gross value added by sector

Gross value added of all Ocean Services by sector

Expenditure

Expenditures on environmental protection and maintenance

Table 45. Seagrass ecosystem core statistics

 

Ecosystem Type: Seagrasses

Category

Statistic

Ocean Assets

 

Condition

Overall condition measures

Biodiversity

Seagrass cover (Satellite imaging)

 

Seagrass diversity/abundance (benthic surveys)

 

Megafauna Abundance Counts (ex: Dugongs)

Ecosystem Fitness

Vegetation Type (Species Diversity)

 

Seagrass Density (per m2)

 

Sedimentation Rate

Biogeochemical Cycling

Sediment Redox Potential (mV)

 

Dissolved Organic Carbon Release Rate

 

Inundation Depth

 

C:N Sediment ratios

 

Production: Respiration Ratio (per m2)

Physiochemical Quality

Water Temperature

 

Light Availability

 

Salinity

Greenhouse Gas Retention

Nitrification Rate

 

Carbon Dioxide Flux

 

Total Water Storage (per m2)

 

Total Organic Carbon (per m2)

Stock

Overall stock statistics

Ecosystem Extent

Seagrass/Vegetation Cover (satellite)

Total Area of Saline High Tide Extent (satellite)

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Artisanal Fishery Catch

(Vertebrates)

Commercial Fishery Catch

 

Recreational Fish Catch

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Gross Shellfish Harvested

(Invertebrates)

Gross Shrimp Harvested

 

Gross Seagrass Harvested

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Planktivorous Fish Grown

 (Vertebrates)

 

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Shellfish Grown

(Invertebrates)

Gross Shrimp Grown

Stock of Abiotic Resources

Agricultural Services

Ocean Services (Flows to the Economy)

 

Regulating

Conditions affecting flow of service

Greenhouse Gas Sequestration

Coastal geomorphology

 

Sediment deposition rate

 

Vegetation Cover

 

Seagrass Blade Length

Coastal Protection

Sedimentation Rate

 

Tidal Range

 

Water Table Height

 

Rooted Plant Cover

 

Storm Frequency

Erosion Control

Fluvial sediment deposition

 

Sea level rise

 

Growth Form: Submerged

Water Purification

Aquatic Plant Leaf Size

 

Sediment/Nutrient Load

 

Root Type

Nutrient Cycling

Nitrification Rate

 

Biological Oxygen Demand

 

Sulphate Reduction Rate

Waste Remediation

Sediment Organic Carbon Content

 

Sediment Organic Nitrogen Content

 

Fish/Shrimp Farm Wastewater Discharge Rate

Pollutant Remediation

Terrestrial Runoff Rate

 

Fertilizer Concentrations

Provisioning

Conditions affecting flow of service/economic value

Maintenance of Fisheries

Prey Fish Abundance

 

Hydrodynamic Conditions

 

Primary Productivity Rate (Chl a)

 

Vegetation Cover

Cultivated Resources Extracted

Value of Cultivated Vertebrates

 

Value of Cultivated Invertebrates, Algae, Plants

Raw Materials Extracted

Agricultural Products

Cultural

Service levels and values

Tourism/Recreation

Prey Fish Abundance

 

Hydrodynamic Conditions

 

Primary Productivity Rate (Chl a)

 

Vegetation Cover

 

Value of Cultivated Vertebrates

Education/Research

Value of Cultivated Invertebrates, Algae, Plants

 

Agricultural Products

 

Prey Fish Abundance

Religious/Spiritual/Indigenous

 

Ocean Governance

Activities, status, expenditures and value statistics

Regulation

License Fees/Taxes

 

Taxes on Cultivated Resources

 

Taxes on Natural Resources

Enforcement

Permit Income

 

Penalties/Fines

Restoration/Conservation

Area Conserved (no take)

 

Area Conserved (recreational take only)

 

Biomass Restocked (vertebrates)

 

Biomass Restocked (invertebrates)

Mitigation

Length of Engineered Coastal Barriers

 

Area Geoengineered

Gross value added by sector

Gross value added of all Ocean Services by sector

Expenditure

Expenditures on environmental protection and maintenance

Table 46. Salt Marsh and Estuary ecosystem core statistics

Ecosystem Type: Salt Marshes and Estuaries

Category

Statistic

Ocean Assets

 

Condition

Overall condition measures

Biodiversity

Seagrass/Vegetation Cover

 

Prey Fish Abundance

 

Healthy Predator Populations

Ecosystem Fitness

Vegetation Type

 

Seagrass Abundance/Cover

 

Plant Height

Biogeochemical Cycling

Sediment Redox Potential

 

Hypersalinity

 

Inundation Depth

 

C:N Sediment ratios

 

Submerged Plant Growth Form

Physiochemical Quality

Water Temperature

 

Light Availability

 

Salinity

Greenhouse Gas Retention

Nitrification Rate

 

Carbon Dioxide Flux

 

Total Water Storage

 

Total Organic Carbon

Stock

Overall stock statistics

Ecosystem Extent

Seagrass/Vegetation Cover

Total Area of Saline High Tide Extent (satellite)

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Stock Available for Artisinal Fishery

(Vertebrates)

Stock of Commercial Fish

 

Stock of Recreational Fish

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Stock of Shellfish Available for Harvest

(Invertebrates)

Stock of Shrimp Available for Harvest

 

Stock of Crab Available for Harvest

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Planktivorous Fish Grown

 (Vertebrates)

 

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Shellfish Grown

(Invertebrates)

 

Stock of Abiotic Resources

Minerals/Fertilizers Available for Extraction

Ocean Services (Flows to the Economy)

 

Regulating

Conditions affecting flow of service

Greenhouse Gas Sequestration

Coastal geomorphology

 

Sediment deposition rate

 

Vegetation Cover

 

Aquatic Plant Leaf Size

Coastal Protection

Coastal geomorphology

 

Tidal Range

 

Water Table Height

 

Rooted Plant Cover

 

Storm Frequency

Erosion Control

Fluvial sediment deposition

 

Sea level rise

 

Growth Form: Submerged

Water Purification

Aquatic Plant Leaf Size

 

Sediment/Nutrient Load

 

Root Type

Nutrient Cycling

Nitrification Rate

 

Biological Oxygen Demand

 

Sulfate Reduction Rate

Waste Remediation

Sediment Organic Carbon Content

 

Sediment Organic Nitrogen Content

 

Terrestrial Runoff Rate

Pollutant Remediation

Fertilizer Concentrations

 

Sewage Waste Concentrations

Provisioning

Conditions affecting flow of service/economic value

Maintenance of Fisheries

Prey Fish Abundance

 

Hydrodynamic Conditions

 

Primary Productivity Rate (Chl a)

 

Vegetation Cover

Cultivated Resources Extracted

Value of Cultivated Vertebrates

 

Value of Cultivated Invertebrates

Raw Materials Extracted

Agricultural Products Extracted

Cultural

Service levels and values

Tourism/Recreation

Accessible Area for Recreation

 

Water Quality

 

Marine Mammal Tourism

 

Abundance of Visually attractive flora

 

Recreation Generated Income

Education/Research

Net Expense on Research

 

Net Expense on Education

 

Habitat quality and area

Religious/Spiritual/Indigenous

Cultural Heritage Area

Ocean Governance

Activities, status, expenditures and value statistics

Regulation

License Fees/Taxes

 

Taxes on Cultivated Resources

 

Taxes on Natural Resources

Enforcement

Permit Income

 

Penalties/Fines

Restoration/Conservation

Area Conserved (no take)

 

Area Conserved (recreational take only)

 

Biomass Restocked (vertebrates)

 

Biomass Restocked (invertebrates)

Mitigation

Length of Engineered Coastal Barriers

 

Area Geoengineered

Gross value added by sector

Gross value added of all Ocean Services by sector

Expenditure

Expenditures on environmental protection and maintenance

 

Table 47. Sediment ecosystem core statistics

 

Ecosystem Type: Sediment

Category

Statistic

Ocean Assets

 

Condition

Overall condition statistics

Biodiversity

Benthic Microbial Community

 

Fish Diversity

 

Infaunal Invertebrate Diversity

Ecosystem Fitness

Production: Respiration Ratio

 

Sulfate Reduction Rate

 

Sediment Oxygen Profile

 

Nitrification Rate

Biogeochemical Cycling

Nitrate Concentration

 

Sulfate Concentration

 

Sediment Redox Potential

 

Particulate/Dissolved Organic C:N

 

Dissolved Oxygen

 

pH (total scale)

Physiochemical Quality

Water Temperature

 

Salinity

 

Mean Sea Level

Greenhouse Gas Retention

Benthic Production:Respiration Ratio

 

Sediment Permeability

 

Light Availability/Turbidity

 

Average Sea State

Stock

Overall stock statistics

Ecosystem Extent

Total Area of Soft Bottom/Sediment (Satellite)

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Gross benthal fish stock

(Vertebrates)

Gross infaunal fish stock

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Gross Sea Cucumber Stock

(Invertebrates)

Gross Shellfish Stock

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Piscivorous Fish Grown

 (Vertebrates)

Gross Planktivorous Fish Grown

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Shellfish grown

(Invertebrates)

 

Stock of Abiotic Resources

Sand Available for Harvest

Ocean Services (Flows to the Economy)

 

Regulating

Conditions affecting flow of service

Greenhouse Gas Sequestration

Coastal geomorphology

 

Sediment deposition rate

 

Sediment Permeability

 

Light availability

Coastal Protection

Coastal geomorphology

 

Tidal Range

 

Water Table Height

 

Storm Frequency

Erosion Control

Fluvial sediment deposition

 

Sea level rise

 

Area of physical structure

Water Purification

Microphytobenthic composition

Nutrient Cycling

Nitrification Rate

 

Biological Oxygen Demand

 

Sulfate Reduction Rate

Waste Remediation

Sediment Organic Carbon Content

 

Sediment Organic Nitrogen Content

 

Plastic Pollutant Load

 

Terrestrial Runoff Rate

Pollutant Remediation

Fertilizer Concentrations

 

PCB Concentrations

 

Trace Metal Concentrations

Provisioning

Condition affecting flows of service/economic values

Maintenance of Fisheries

Catch Rate and value

 

Catch Per Unit Effort

Cultivated Resources Extracted

Value of Cultivated Vertebrates

 

Value of Cultivated Invertebrates

Raw Materials Extracted

Quantity and Value of Sand Extracted

Cultural

Service level and values

Tourism/Recreation

Accessible Area for Recreation

 

Water Quality

 

Tourism Generated Income

 

Recreation Generated Income

Education/Research

Net Expense on Research

 

Net Expense on Education

 

Habitat quality and area

Religious/Spiritual/Indigenous

Cultural Heritage Area

Ocean Governance

Activities, status, expenditures and value statistics

Regulation

License Fees/Taxes

 

Taxes on Cultivated Resources

 

Taxes on Natural Resources

Enforcement

Permit Income

 

Penalties/Fines

Restoration/Conservation

Area Conserved (no take)

 

Area Conserved (recreational take only)

 

Biomass Restocked (vertebrates)

 

Biomass Restocked (invertebrates)

Mitigation

Length of Engineered Coastal Barriers

 

Area Geoengineered

Gross value added by sector

Gross value added of all Ocean Services by sector

Expenditure

Expenditures on environmental protection and maintenance

Table 48. Open Ocean ecosystem core statistics

 

Ecosystem Type: Open Ocean

Category

Statistic

Ocean Assets

 

Condition

Overall condition statistics

Biodiversity

Megafauna Abundance/Diversity

 

Fish Diversity

 

Plankton abundance

Ecosystem Fitness

Chlorophyll a concentration

 

Biological Pump Rate

 

Turbidity/Light availability

Biogeochemical Cycling

Thermocline

 

Pycnocline

 

Vertical Profile: Oxygen

 

Vertical Profile: Nitrate

 

Vertical Profile: pH

 

Vertical Profile: DIC

Physiochemical Quality

Sea Surface Temperature

 

Sea Surface Salinity

 

Mean Sea Level

Greenhouse Gas Retention

Plankton Abundance

 

Chlorophyll a Concentration

 

Dissolved Inorganic Carbon Profile

 

Average Sea State

Stock

Overall stock statistics

Ecosystem Extent

Total area defined as open ocean (satellite)

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Gross pelagic fish catch

(Vertebrates)

Gross piscivorous fish catch

Stock of Natural Aquatic Resources

Gross shrimp catch

(Invertebrates)

Gross squid catch

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Pelagic Fish Grown

 (Vertebrates)

 

Stock of Cultivated Aquatic Resources

Gross Shellfish Grown

(Invertebrates)

Gross Shrimp Grown

Stock of Abiotic Resources

Oil/Petroleum Harvested

 

Energy Generated

Ocean Services (Flows to the Economy)

 

Regulating

Conditions affecting flow of services

Greenhouse Gas Sequestration

Average Sea State

 

Chlorophyll a (Satellite)

 

SST (Satellite)

Coastal Protection

Mean Sea Level

 

Hydrodynamic Barrier Area

Erosion Control

Water Column Sedimentation Rates

Water Purification

Plankton Abundance

 

Chlorophyll a Concentration

Nutrient Cycling

Biological Pump Rate

 

Chlorophyll a Concentration (satellite)

 

Dissolved Inorganic Carbon Profile

Waste Remediation

Water Column PON

 

Water Column POC

 

Plastic Pollutant Load

 

Terrestrial Runoff Rate

Pollutant Remediation

Fertilizer Concentrations

 

Microplastic Concentrations

 

Large Plastic Concentrations

Provisioning

Conditions affecting flow of services/economic values

Maintenance of Fisheries

Fish Catch and Value

 

Catch Per Unit Effort

Cultivated Resources Extracted

Value of Cultivated Vertebrates

 

Value of Cultivated Invertebrates

Raw Materials Extracted

Energy Generated

 

Oil/Petroleum Extracted

Cultural

Service levels and values

Tourism/Recreation

Accessible Area for Recreation

 

Water Quality

 

Tourism Generated Income

 

Recreation Generated Income

Education/Research

Net Expense on Research

 

Net Expense on Education

Religious/Spiritual/Indigenous

Cultural Heritage Area

Ocean Governance

Activities, status, expenditures and value statistics

Regulation

License Fees/Taxes

 

Taxes on Cultivated Resources

 

Taxes on Natural Resources

Enforcement

Permit Income

 

Penalties/Fines

Restoration/Conservation

Area Conserved (no take)

 

Area Conserved (recreational take only)

 

Biomass Restocked (vertebrates)

 

Biomass Restocked (invertebrates)

Mitigation

Length of Engineered Coastal Barriers

 

Area of Hydrodynamic Barriers

Gross value added by sector

Gross value added of all Ocean Services by sector

References for Core Ocean Statistics

Coral Reef Ecosystems

Ahmed, M., Chong, C. K., & Cesar, H. (2005). Economic Valuation and Policy Priorities for Sustainable Management of Coral Reefs. https://www.worldfishcenter.org/content/economic-valuation-and-policy-priorities-sustainable-management-coral-reefs

Andersson, A. J., MacKenzie, F. T., & Lerman, A. (2005). Coastal ocean and carbonate systems in the high CO2 world of the anthropocene. American Journal of Science, 305(9), 875–918. https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.305.9.875

Atkinson, M. J. (2011). Biogeochemistry of nutrients. In Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition (pp. 199–206). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0114-4_13

Barbier, E. B., Hacker, S. D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E. W., Stier, A. C., & Silliman, B. R. (2011). The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. In Ecological Monographs (Vol. 81, Issue 2, pp. 169–193). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1890/10-1510.1

Barton, J. A., Willis, B. L., & Hutson, K. S. (2017). Coral propagation: a review of techniques for ornamental trade and reef restoration. Reviews in Aquaculture, 9(3), 238–256. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12135

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Beck, M. W., Losada, I. J., Menéndez, P., Reguero, B. G., Díaz-Simal, P., & Fernández, F. (2018). The global flood protection savings provided by coral reefs. Nature Communications, 9(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04568-z

Bell, P. R. F. (1992). Eutrophication and coral reefs-some examples in the Great Barrier Reef lagoon. Water Research, 26(5), 553–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(92)90228-V

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Koop, K., Booth, D., Broadbent, A., Brodie, J., Bucher, D., Capone, D., Coll, J., Dennison, W., Erdmann, M., Harrison, P., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Hutchings, P., Jones, G. B., Larkum, A. W. D., O’Neil, J., Steven, A., Tentori, E., Ward, S., Williamson, J., & Yellowlees, D. (2001). ENCORE: The effect of nutrient enrichment on coral reefs. Synthesis of results and conclusions. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42(2), 91–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-326X(00)00181-8

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Laurans, Y., Pascal, N., Binet, T., Brander, L., Clua, E., David, G., Rojat, D., & Seidl, A. (2013). Economic valuation of ecosystem services from coral reefs in the South Pacific: Taking stock of recent experience. Journal of Environmental Management, 116, 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.11.031

Mallela, J., & Perry, C. T. (2007). Calcium carbonate budgets for two coral reefs affected by different terrestrial runoff regimes, Rio Bueno, Jamaica. Coral Reefs, 26(1), 129–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-006-0169-7

Mass, T., Genin, A., Shavit, U., Grinstein, M., & Tchernov, D. (2010). Flow enhances photosynthesis in marine benthic autotrophs by increasing the efflux of oxygen from the organism to the water. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(6), 2527–2531. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0912348107

McCook, L. J. (1999). Macroalgae, nutrients and phase shifts on coral reefs: Scientific issues and management consequences for the Great Barrier Reef. In Coral Reefs (Vol. 18, Issue 4, pp. 357–367). Springer-Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003380050213

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Orlando, J. L., & Yee, S. H. (2016, March 23). Linking Terrigenous Sediment Delivery to Declines in Coral Reef Ecosystem Services. Estuaries and Coasts, 40(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-016-0167-0

Pascal, N., Allenbach, M., Brathwaite, A., Burke, L., Le Port, G., & Clua, E. (2016). Economic valuation of coral reef ecosystem service of coastal protection: A pragmatic approach. Ecosystem Services, 21, 72–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2016.07.005

Perry, C. T., Alvarez-Filip, L., Graham, N. A. J., Mumby, P. J., Wilson, S. K., Kench, P. S., Manzello, D. P., Morgan, K. M., Slangen, A. B. A., Thomson, D. P., Januchowski-Hartley, F., Smithers, S. G., Steneck, R. S., Carlton, R., Edinger, E. N., Enochs, I. C., Estrada-Saldívar, N., Haywood, M. D. E., Kolodziej, G., … Macdonald, C. (2018). Loss of coral reef growth capacity to track future increases in sea level. Nature, 558(7710), 396–400. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0194-z

Robles-Zavala, E., & Chang Reynoso, A. G. (2018). The recreational value of coral reefs in the Mexican Pacific. Ocean and Coastal Management, 157, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.02.010

Shamberger, K. E. F., Feely, R. A., Sabine, C. L., Atkinson, M. J., DeCarlo, E. H., Mackenzie, F. T., Drupp, P. S., & Butterfield, D. A. (2011). Calcification and organic production on a Hawaiian coral reef. Marine Chemistry, 127(1–4), 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MARCHEM.2011.08.003

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Mangrove Ecosystems

Adeel, Z., & Pomeroy, R. (2002). Assessment and management of mangrove ecosystems in developing countries. Trees - Structure and Function, 16(2–3), 235–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-002-0168-4

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Balke, T., & Friess, D. A. (2016). Geomorphic knowledge for mangrove restoration: a pan-tropical categorization. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 41(2), 231–239. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3841

Bandaranayake, W. M. (1998). Traditional and medicinal uses of mangroves. Mangroves and Salt Marshes, 2(3), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009988607044

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Chowdhury, A., & Maiti, S. K. (2016). Assessing the ecological health risk in a conserved mangrove ecosystem due to heavy metal pollution: A case study from Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 22(7), 1519–1541. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2016.1190636

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Faridah-Hanum, I., Yusoff, F. M., Fitrianto, A., Ainuddin, N. A., Gandaseca, S., Zaiton, S., Norizah, K., Nurhidayu, S., Roslan, M. K., Hakeem, K. R., Shamsuddin, I., Adnan, I., Awang Noor, A. G., Balqis, A. R. S., Rhyma, P. P., Siti Aminah, I., Hilaluddin, F., Fatin, R., & Harun, N. Z. N. (2019). Development of a comprehensive mangrove quality index (MQI) in Matang Mangrove: Assessing mangrove ecosystem health. Ecological Indicators, 102, 103–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.02.030

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Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L. L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland, T., Masek, J., & Duke, N. (2011). Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 20(1), 154–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x

Gunawardena, M., & Rowan, J. S. (2005). Economic valuation of a mangrove ecosystem threatened by shrimp aquaculture in Sri Lanka. Environmental Management, 36(4), 535–550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-003-0286-9

Hackney, C., Carrie, R., Tan Van, D., Ahmed, J., Teasdale, S., Quinn, C., Stringer, L., Le, H. van T., Nguyen, Q. H., Thanh, N. P. T., & Parsons, D. (2020). Impact of mangrove age on sediment retention and wave dissipation and its links to ecosystem services in the Red River Delta, Vietnam. EGUGA, 9089. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020EGUGA..22.9089H/abstract

Holguin, G., Gonzalez-Zamorano, P., de-Bashan, L. E., Mendoza, R., Amador, E., & Bashan, Y. (2006). Mangrove health in an arid environment encroached by urban development-a case study. Science of the Total Environment, 363(1–3), 260–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.05.026

Ishtiaque, A., Myint, S. W., & Wang, C. (2016). Examining the ecosystem health and sustainability of the world’s largest mangrove forest using multi-temporal MODIS products. Science of the Total Environment, 569570, 1241–1254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.200

Kairo, J. G., Wanjiru, C., & Ochiewo, J. (2009). Net pay: Economic analysis of a replanted mangrove plantation in Kenya. Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 28(3–5), 395–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/10549810902791523

Kaly, U. L. (1998). Mangrove restoration: A potential tool for coastal management in tropical developing countries. Ambio, 27(8), 656–661. https://doi.org/10.2307/4314812

Kamali, B., & Hashim, R. (2011). Mangrove restoration without planting. Ecological Engineering, 37(2), 387–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2010.11.025

Kibria, A. S. M. G., Costanza, R., Groves, C., & Behie, A. M. (2018). The interactions between livelihood capitals and access of local communities to the forest provisioning services of the Sundarbans Mangrove Forest, Bangladesh. Ecosystem Services, 32, 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.05.003

Kodikara, K. A. S., Mukherjee, N., Jayatissa, L. P., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., & Koedam, N. (2017). Have mangrove restoration projects worked? An in-depth study in Sri Lanka. Restoration Ecology, 25(5), 705–716. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12492

Lovelock, C. E., Ball, M. C., Martin, K. C., & C. Feller, I. (2009). Nutrient Enrichment Increases Mortality of Mangroves. PLoS ONE, 4(5), e5600. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005600

Lovelock, C. E., & Brown, B. M. (2019). Land tenure considerations are key to successful mangrove restoration. In Nature Ecology and Evolution (Vol. 3, Issue 8, p. 1135). Nature Publishing Group. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0942-y

M. Brander, L., J. Wagtendonk, A., S. Hussain, S., McVittie, A., Verburg, P. H., de Groot, R. S., & van der Ploeg, S. (2012). Ecosystem service values for mangroves in Southeast Asia: A meta-analysis and value transfer application. Ecosystem Services, 1(1), 62–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2012.06.003

Mcleod, E., & Salm, R. V. (n.d.). Managing Mangroves for Resilience to Climate Change IUCN Global Marine Programme. www.nature.org/marine.

Peng, Y., Chen, G., Li, S., Liu, Y., & Pernetta, J. C. (2013). Use of degraded coastal wetland in an integrated mangrove-aquaculture system: A case study from the South China Sea. Ocean and Coastal Management, 85, 209–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.04.008

Samonte-Tan, G. P. B., White, A. T., Tercero, M. A., Diviva, J., Tabara, E., & Caballes, C. (2007). Economic valuation of coastal and marine resources: Bohol Marine Triangle, Philippines. Coastal Management, 35(2–3), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/08920750601169634

Sathirathai, S., & Barbier, E. B. (2001). Valuing mangrove conservation in Southern Thailand. Contemporary Economic Policy, 19(2), 109–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7287.2001.tb00054.x

Thom, B. G. (1982). Mangrove ecology - A geomorphological perspective. In Mangrove ecosystems in Australia: structure, function and management (pp. 3–17). A. N. U. Press. https://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/10003518183

Vaghela, B. N., Parmar, M. G., Solanki, H. A., Kansara, B. B., Prajapati, S. K., & Kalubarme, M. H. (2018). Multi Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) Approach for Mangrove Health Assessment using Geo-informatics Technology. International Journal of Environment and Geoinformatics, 5(2), 114–131. https://doi.org/10.30897/ijegeo.412511

Zhang, C., Kovacs, J., Liu, Y., Flores-Verdugo, F., & Flores-de-Santiago, F. (2014). Separating Mangrove Species and Conditions Using Laboratory Hyperspectral Data: A Case Study of a Degraded Mangrove Forest of the Mexican Pacific. Remote Sensing, 6(12), 11673–11688. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs61211673

Kelp Forest Ecosystems

Araújo, R. M., Assis, J., Aguillar, R., Airoldi, L., Bárbara, I., Bartsch, I., Bekkby, T., Christie, H., Davoult, D., Derrien-Courtel, S., Fernandez, C., Fredriksen, S., Gevaert, F., Gundersen, H., Le Gal, A., Lévêque, L., Mieszkowska, N., Norderhaug, K. M., Oliveira, P., … Sousa-Pinto, I. (2016). Status, trends and drivers of kelp forests in Europe: an expert assessment. Biodiversity and Conservation, 25(7), 1319–1348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-016-1141-7

Bearham, D., Vanderklift, M., & Gunson, J. (2013). Temperature and light explain spatial variation in growth and productivity of the kelp Ecklonia radiata. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 476, 59–70. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10148

Bell, T. W., Allen, J. G., Cavanaugh, K. C., & Siegel, D. A. (2020). Three decades of variability in California’s giant kelp forests from the Landsat satellites. Remote Sensing of Environment, 238, 110811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.06.039

Bennett, S., Wernberg, T., Connell, S. D., Hobday, A. J., Johnson, C. R., & Poloczanska, E. S. (2016). The “Great Southern Reef”: Social, ecological and economic value of Australia’s neglected kelp forests. Marine and Freshwater Research, 67(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF15232

Blamey, L. K., & Bolton, J. J. (2018). The economic value of South African kelp forests and temperate reefs: Past, present and future. Journal of Marine Systems, 188, 172–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2017.06.003

Borras-Chavez, R., Edwards, M. S., Arvizu-Higuera, D. L., Rodríguez-Montesinos, Y. E., Hernández-Carmona, G., & Briceño-Domínguez, D. (2016). Repetitive harvesting of Macrocystis pyrifera (Phaeophyceae) and its effects on chemical constituents of economic value. Botanica Marina, 59(1), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2015-0028

Buschmann, A. H., Riquelme, V. A., Hernández-González, M. C., Varela, D., Jiménez, J. E., Henríquez, L. A., Vergara, P. A., Guíñez, R., & Filún, L. (2006). A review of the impacts of salmonid farming on marine coastal ecosystems in the southeast Pacific. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 63(7), 1338–1345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icesjms.2006.04.021

Caselle, J. E., Rassweiler, A., Hamilton, S. L., & Warner, R. R. (2015). Recovery trajectories of kelp forest animals are rapid yet spatially variable across a network of temperate marine protected areas. Scientific Reports, 5(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14102

Connell, S., Russell, B., Turner, D., Shepherd, S., Kildea, T., Miller, D., Airoldi, L., & Cheshire, A. (2008). Recovering a lost baseline: missing kelp forests from a metropolitan coast. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 360, 63–72. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07526

Eckman, J. E., Duggins, D. O., & Sewell, A. T. (1989). Ecology of under story kelp environments. I. Effects of kelps on flow and particle transport near the bottom. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 129(2), 173–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(89)90055-5

Filbee-Dexter, K., & Wernberg, T. (2018). Rise of Turfs: A New Battlefront for Globally Declining Kelp Forests. BioScience, 68(2), 64–76. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix147

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